Author Index
A. Policies and Research
B. Instructional Guides and Manuals
C. Hazards, Risks and Loss Assessment
D. Mandates for Planning and Land Use Management
E. Effectiveness and Factors Influencing Effectiveness
A. Policies and Research
Baker, Earl and John McPhee. 1975. Land Use Regulations in
Hazardous Areas: A Research Assessment. Boulder, CO: Natural
Hazards Research and Applications Information Center,
University of Colorado.
This report includes a call for empirical evaluation of
whether the goals sought by land-use regulation have ever
been realized and whether there have been adverse impacts
due to existing programs.
Beatley, Timothy. 1995. "Planning and Sustainability: The
Elements of a New (Improved?) Paradigm?" Journal of Planning
Literature 9 (May): 383-395.
Beatley, Timothy. 1995. "Promoting Sustainable Land Use:
Mitigating Natural Hazards Through Land Use Planning" in
Natural Disasters: Local and Global Perspectives. Boston, MA:
Insurance Institute for Property Loss Reduction.
A presentation of literature on the state of the art of land
use and development planning techniques to mitigate hazards
and promote sustainable land use patterns. The author
recommends incentives to localities to explore how new
planning tools might work. Such tools include: transfer of
development rights, clustering, traditional neighborhood
development ordinances, greenway systems, innovative
acquisition efforts, promotion of more compact and
contiguous development patterns, hazards mapping, emphasis
on multiple objectives and linking hazard mitigation to the
sustainable communities movement.
Burby, Raymond J., ed. 1998. Cooperating with Nature:
Confronting Natural Hazards with Land Use Planning for
Sustainable Communities. Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press.
This is the second National Assessment of natural hazards
research and applications. It is a thorough review of the
role of hazard mitigation in land use planning with
well-considered analyses of how to improve the process and
thereby reduce natural disaster losses.
Faber, Scott. 1996. On Borrowed Land: Public Policies for
Floodplains. Cambridge, MA: Lincoln Institute of Land Policy.
This report summarizes key points from a conference of
policy experts and local elected officials on the disastrous
Midwest flooding in 1993. The participants considered how
human uses of land increase the risk of floods and what
communities, states, and the federal government can do to
mitigate flood damage.
Interagency Floodplain Management Review Committee. 1994.
Sharing the Challenge: Floodplain Management in the 21st
Century. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
The national report makes several findings on the
effectiveness of various engineering strategies during the
flood of 1993. Recommendations are also made for land use
management strategies that would effectively achieve risk
reduction, economic efficiency and environmental enhancement
in the floodplain.
Natural Hazards Research and Applications Information Center.
1985. Evaluating the Effectiveness of Floodplain Management
Techniques and Community Programs. Boulder, CO: Natural
Hazards Research and Applications Information Center,
University of Colorado.
A 1985 conference to discuss the state of knowledge of the
effectiveness of individual floodplain management techniques
and community programs found that, for a number of reasons,
it is very difficult, if not impossible, to determine the
extent to which a particular technique or program will
minimize losses and prove cost-effective. The conference's
proceedings are presented in this report.
National Research Council. 1996. Alluvial Fan Flooding.
Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
In the western United States, many major land use conflicts
revolve around development of alluvial fans, which can be
susceptible to catastrophic flash flooding. The National
Research Council revisited the definition of alluvial fan
flooding and developed criteria for determining whether an
area is susceptible to this risk. The NRC also presents in
this report a number of policy recommendations.
White, Gilbert F. and J. Eugene Haas. 1975. Assessment of
Research on Natural Hazards. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
This was the first National Assessment of natural hazards
research sources and needs. The authors found that most
studies had been conducted on the physical and technological
aspects of hazards, rather than on the social sciences. They
identify landuse management as one of the primary areas
common to most hazards and needing further research.
B. Instructional Guides and Manuals
American Planning Association. 1997. Growing Smart Legislative
Guidebook. Chicago, IL: Interim Edition.
A set of model statutes for jurisdictions interested in
updating their planning and zoning laws and regulations. The
models were prepared by experts across the country and are
adaptable to local situations.
Bolton, Patricia, Susan G. Heikklal, Marjorie Green, and Peter
J. May. 1986. Land Use Planning for Earthquake Hazard
Mitigation: A Handbook for Planners. Boulder, CO: University
of Colorado, Institute of Behavioral Science, Natural Hazards
Research and Applications Information Center. Special
Publication No. 14.
Written by planners and authorities on hazard management and
response, this handbook is based on the premise that land
use planning techniques are useful and potentially less
costly than other measures to decrease earthquake loss
potential. It proposes a systematic approach for gathering
information, determining the comparative effectiveness of
various techniques, and making key decisions.
Boulder Fire Department. 1990. Wildfire Protection: A Guide
for Homeowners and Developers. Boulder, CO: Boulder Fire
Department.
Developed by the Sierra Front Wildfire Cooperators, this
manual explains steps homeowners, builders, planners, and
others can take to make homes safe from fires in
wildland/urban interfaces. It describes the key elements to
consider when building a home, what practices to use when
modifying and maintaining an existing home, how to develop a
fire plan, how to react when a home is threatened by
wildfire, how to plan a subdivision with fire safety in
mind, and which fire-resistant plant species to use in
landscaping.
International Fire Code Institute. 1995. Urban Wildland
Interface Code. Whittier, CA: Draft.
A model planning and construction code for any jurisdiction
with areas subject to wildfires. It is intended to
supplement the jurisdiction's existing building and fire
codes.
Jaffe, Martin, JoAnn Butler, and Charles Thurow. 1981.
Reducing Earthquake Risks: A Planner's Guide. Chicago, IL:
American Planning Association.
This is a practical guide for planners interested in
learning how to assess their earthquake risks, prepare a
land use plan to address the risks, and recover from the
damage. It discusses specific zoning and subdivision
approaches.
Monday, Jacquelyn, L. 1994. A Multi-Objective Planning Process
for Mitigating Natural Hazards. Denver, CO: U.S. Federal
Emergency Management Agency, Region VIII
This document describes how, by conducting an intensive
workshop, the multiobjective planning process can be used to
develop a plan for mitigating one or more natural hazards
while addressing a locale's other needs and goals. It
includes a checklist of activities, a sample invitation, a
sample agenda, letters for communicating with possible
participants, information and guidelines for facilitators,
and sample press releases.
National Fire Protection Association. 1997. NFPA 1141 Standard
for Fire Protection for Planned Building Groups.
The purpose of this standard is to reduce the impact of a
fire in suburban and rural areas where there may be limited
water supply, limited fire department resources, extended
fire department response time, delayed alarms, limited
access, hazardous vegetation, unusual terrain or other
unusual characteristics.
National Fire Protection Association. 1997. NFPA 299 Standard
for the Protection of Life and Property from Wildfire.
This standard provides planning, construction, maintenance,
education, and management elements to parties responsible
for fire protection, land use planning, property development
and maintenance, wildfire safety training, and public fire
safety education in areas where wildfire might threaten
lives or property. It includes information on safe
procedures and practices.
Olshansky, Robert B. 1996. Planning for Hillside Development.
Chicago, IL: American Planning Association. Planning Advisory
Service Report No. 466.
This report notes the importance of planning for hillside
development before adopting regulations that shape that
development, particularly if there are contradictions in
ordinances that address safety, aesthetics, environmental
preservation and affordability. It offers a variety of
approaches for achieving community development goals.
Tyler, Martha Blair. 1995. Look Before You Build: Geologic
Studies for Safer Land Development in the San Francisco Bay
Area. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior,
Geological Survey. Circular 1130.
This circular was developed to assist local officials in
making better land use decisions by informing them of the
geologic conditions of proposed development sites and what
those conditions mean for future safety. It provides
information on hazards geology in general, the necessity of
geologic studies, the use of geologic information in project
review, and sources of additional information.
U.S. Water Resources Council. 1971. Regulation of Flood Hazard
Areas to Reduce Flood Losses. Washington, DC: U.S. Water
Resources Council. Note: 3 volumes.
These volumes are intended to assist state agencies to
regulate flood hazard areas in conjunction with or
independent of local units. They also contain discussions of
legal considerations, flood zoning ordinances, subdivision
regulations, and coastal flood loss control.
C. Hazards, Risks and Loss Assessment
Burby, Raymond J., with Beverly A. Cigler, Steven P. French,
Edward J. Kaiser, Jack Kartez, Dale Roenigk, Dana Weist, and
Dale Whittington. 1991. Sharing Environmental Risks: How to
Control Governments' Losses in Natural Disasters. Boulder, CO:
Westview Press.
A comprehensive investigation of the magnitude and character
of government losses from natural disasters, a presentation
of a range of policy options for addressing those losses and
an evaluation of the opportunities for and constraints on
policy innovation and reform. This study includes a chapter
on physical planning strategies and a chapter looking at the
state of practice based upon a survey of local officials
from 481 cities.
Emmi, Philip C. and Carl A. Horton 1993. "A GIS-Based
Assessment of Earthquake Property Damage and Casualty Risk:
Salt Lake County, Utah." Earthquake Spectra 9 (1): 11-33.
In a study on damage forecasting in Salt Lake County, Utah,
the authors employed (1) a microzonation of the earthquake
ground shaking hazard, (2) an inventory of buildings by
value, structural frame type and use, (3) earthquake damage
functions defining performance of buildings as a function of
ground shaking intensity, (4) data on the density of
residential and employee populations, and (5) earthquake
casualty functions defining casualty risk as a function of
building damage.
L.R. Johnston Associates. 1992. Floodplain Management in the
United States: An Assessment Report. Volume II, Full Report.
Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
This report is a comprehensive look at floodplain management
approaches and techniques used in the United States.
Although floodplain management efforts have seen
considerable accomplishment, losses from flooding continue
to rise, and traditional structural approaches to modifying
flooding have negative effects. Improvements are suggested
to a variety of mitigation strategies, and a coordinated,
yet flexible approach is recommended for a unified national
strategy.
U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Office of
Policy Development and Research. 1995. Preparing for the "Big
One": Saving Lives through Earthquake Mitigation in Los
Angeles, California. Los Angeles, CA: U.S. Department of
Housing and Urban Development.
This report provides estimates of the costs of damage from
the Northridge earthquake and the costs of recommended
mitigation efforts. Structures considered include schools,
health care facilities, residences, and lifelines. Based on
interviews, research reports, and news articles, the authors
conclude that an inventory and assessment of local building
stock and additional financial resources would be necessary
for successful mitigation efforts.
Organization of American States. 1991. Primer on Natural
Hazard Management in Integrated Regional Development Planning.
Washington, DC: Organization of American States.
A primer on the integration of natural hazards assessment
and management with regional development planning in Central
and South America. The text includes a discussion of the
techniques used for natural hazards assessment: remote
sensing, Geographic Information Systems, multiple hazard
mapping and critical facilities mapping.
Petak, William and Arthur A. Atkisson. 1982. Natural Hazard
Risk Assessment and Public Policy: Anticipating the
Unexpected. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Using risk analysis techniques, the authors estimate annual
expected losses due to natural hazards and identify specific
mitigation strategies and technologies, the costs of their
implementation, and several policy-making considerations and
constraints. From this, the authors develop and assess
policy options appropriate for addressing natural hazard
risks and recommend policy actions at the federal, state,
local and private levels.
William Spangle, and Associates, Inc. 1996. Using Earthquake
Hazard Maps for Land Use Planning and Building Permit
Administration - Portland Metropolitan Region. Portland, OR:
Metro Regional Government, Metro Advisory Committee.
In an effort to guide safe land use decisions and building
regulation, the State of Oregon's Department of Geology and
Mineral Industries and the Metro Regional Government mapped
the earthquake hazard in the metropolitan area. These maps
portray the seismic hazards and the report describes the use
of maps for land use planning in a seismically active area
and in building permit administration and project review.
William Spangle, and Associates, Inc. 1979. Seismic Safety and
Land Use Planning: Selected Examples from California.
Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office.
This report explains how information on seismic hazards can
be effectively integrated into land use planning and
decision making to reduce seismic risks. It concludes that
land use planning will become a more effective
risk-reduction strategy as more accurate and detailed
information becomes available.
William Spangle, and Associates, Inc. 1988. Geology and
Planning: The Portola Valley Experience. Portola Valley, CA.
The authors explore a case study in the use of geologic
information in land use planning. By combining seismic
safety goals with the avoidance of rupture fault lines and
steep slopes and with other planning goals, local officials
were able to successfully implement several effective
techniques.
D. Mandates for Planning and Land Use Management
Berke, Philip R., Dale Roenigk, Edward J. Kaiser, and Raymond
J. Burby. 1996. "Enhancing Plan Quality: Evaluating the Role
of State Planning Mandates for Natural Hazard Mitigation."
Journal of Environmental Planning and Management 39 (1):
79-96.
The authors report that state mandates for natural hazards
planning result in plans in communities that otherwise would
not do planning and an improvement in the quality of plans.
Where there is no mandate, local plans vary widely with some
communities lagging far behind.
Berke, Philip R., and Steven P. French 1994. "The Influence of
State Planning Mandates on Local Plan Quality." Journal of
Planning Education and Research 13 (4): 237-250.
The authors found that state mandates have a positive impact
on local hazard mitigation plans. They also found that some
mandates are more effective than others. These findings were
based on data gathered from 139 communities in five states.
Burby, Raymond J. and Linda C. Dalton. 1994. "Plans Can
Matter! The Role of Land Use Plans and State Planning Mandates
in Limiting Development of Hazardous Areas." Public
Administration Review 54 (3): 229-238.
Based on data from 176 local governments in five states, the
authors concluded that land use plans offer communities an
opportunity to evaluate the merits and demerits of further
development in hazardous areas, leading many communities to
subsequent adoption of zoning and other regulations to limit
such developments. Also, without state mandates that require
inclusion of hazards mitigation in local plans, many local
governments will ignore opportunities for risk reduction
through planning and development-limiting land use
regulations.
Burby, Raymond J. and Peter J. May with Philip R. Berke, Linda
C. Dalton, Steven P. French, and Edward J. Kaiser. 1997.
Making Governments Plan: State Experiments in Managing Land
Use. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
In this book, a team of scholars from six universities use
data collected from more than 150 cities and counties in
five states to show that state planning mandates have helped
local governments plan for and manage land subject to
natural hazards. The authors found that the efficacy of
these mandates depends on how well the states craft growth
management legislation, how amply programs are funded, and
how dedicated state officials are to working with
localities. In local areas, they find that success turns on
the quality of plans prepared and, just as important, the
commitment of local officials to state policy objectives.
Recommendations are provided to help states craft effective
planning mandates.
Dalton, Linda C. and Raymond J. Burby. 1994. "Mandates, Plans,
and Planners: Building Local Commitment to Development
Management." Journal of American Planning Association 60
(Autumn): 444-461.
Based on data gathered from local communities in five
states, the authors conclude that (1) plans are limited but
important tools in hazard mitigation, (2) local agency
commitment and capacity do not vary with the strength of
planning mandates, and (3) hazard-specific mandates have
affected planning agency commitment to hazard reduction as
well as adoption of different approaches to development
management.
Drabek, Thomas E., Alvin H. Mushkatel, and Thomas S.
Kilijanek. 1983. Earthquake Mitigation Policy: The Experience
of Two States. Boulder, CO: Institute of Behavioral Science,
University of Colorado.
This study concludes that there is little hazard mitigation
in communities in states without state mandates or planning.
The authors performed a case study of earthquake mitigation
conditions and strategies in Washington and Missouri through
interviews and survey questionnaires with state and local
officials, and a review of documents and reports. They found
that although there has been historical damage from
earthquakes in both states, there has been minimal
mitigation activity.
May, Peter J., Raymond J. Burby, Neil J. Ericksen, John W.
Handmer, Jennifer Dixon, Sarah Michaels, and D. Ingle Smith.
1996. Environmental Management and Governance:
Intergovernmental Approaches to Hazards and Sustainability.
London and New York: Routledge.
This book addresses alternative ways in which national or
state governments can influence actions taken by local
governments to manage hazardous areas. A contrast is drawn
between the "coercive" intergovernmental approach as found
in Florida's growth management program with a "cooperative"
intergovernmental approach as found in approaches to hazards
management in New Zealand and New South Wales, Australia.
The comparisons draw attention to the need for a mix of
coercive and facilitative tools in designing governmental
mandates. The book provides detailed descriptions and
analysis of the different approaches as carried out in the
three settings.
May, Peter J. and Walter Williams. 1986. Disaster Policy
Implementation: Managing Programs Under Shared Governance. New
York: Plenum.
This book addresses the "shared governance dilemma" that is
brought about by differing incentives for hazard mitigation
programs at federal, state and local levels of government.
The authors examine different ways in which federal agencies
exert influence over state and local governments with
particular attention to flood management, earthquake
preparedness, dam safety, and civil defense planning.
May, Peter J. 1993. "Mandate Design and Implementation:
Enhancing Implementation Efforts and Shaping Regulatory
Styles." Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 10 (2):
634-663.
The author examines state planning mandates in five states
and concludes that there are several features which can be
adapted to influence implementation at the local level.
Further, the author concludes that it is easier to influence
implementation efforts than regulatory style, and easier to
employ formal, legalistic approaches than to foster
conciliatory approaches.
May, Peter J. and Thomas A. Birkland. 1994. "Earthquake Risk
Reduction: An Examination of Local Regulatory Efforts."
Environmental Management 18 (November/December): 923-937.
The authors found that local willingness to undertake
risk-reduction programs is more closely related to local
political demands and community resources than to objective
risk of previous seismic events. Further, they found that
state mandates have had selective effectiveness in achieving
compliance with state goals. Findings were based upon data
gathered from questionnaires completed by officials from a
sample of cities in California and Washington subject to
moderate to high seismic risk.
E. Effectiveness and Factors Influencing Effectiveness
Alesch, Daniel J. and William J. Petak. 1986. The Politics and
Economics of Earthquake Mitigation. Boulder, CO: Institute of
Behavioral Science, University of Colorado.
The authors conducted case studies and surveys of three
California cities (Long Beach, Los Angeles, and Santa Ana)
to examine the development, enactment, implementation, and
effects of a code to reduce the number of unreinforced
masonry buildings. Their findings relate to political,
economic, and technological conditions which contribute to
effective use of seismic safety techniques.
Berke, Philip R. and Timothy Beatley. 1992. "A National
Assessment of Local Earthquake Mitigation: Implications for
Planning and Public Policy." Earthquake Spectra 8 (1): 1-15.
Results presented in these two documents were drawn from a
nationwide survey of mitigation efforts of local government
planning programs and three case studies of such programs.
The authors conclude that land-use management can plan an
important role in reducing local seismic risks. They examine
a wide variety of land use management tools and techniques
which can be used to reduce seismic risk, and also look at
the effects of internal and external factors on the adoption
of these techniques. They found that there is much room for
adoption of such programs to improve seismic hazard
mitigation, particularly through post-earthquake recovery
plans.
Berke, Philip R. 1989. "Hurricane Vertical Shelter Policy: The
Experience of Florida and Texas." Coastal Management 17 (3):
193-217.
The author presents case studies of Texas and Florida to
explore the political conditions which lead to consideration
of the use of vertical shelters, multi-story buildings
structurally reinforced to withstand hurricane forces, as an
emergency evacuation option. He found that certain
conditions can be promoted to enhance the likelihood of
adoption and the effectiveness of implementation.
Burby, Raymond J., Scott A. Bollens, James M. Holway, Edward
J. Kaiser, David Mullan, and John R. Sheaffer. 1988. Cities
Under Water: A Comparative Evaluation of Ten Cities' Efforts
to Manage Floodplain Land Use. Boulder, CO: Institute of
Behavioral Sciences, University of Colorado.
The authors assessed data from ten cities in terms of their
implications for three land use management goals: (1)
decreasing future development in the floodplain; (2)
increasing the use of protective measures in whatever
development occurs in the floodplain; and (3) increasing the
proportion of property owners who purchase flood insurance.
Research findings were based on comparison of 1985
floodplain conditions with those established in a 1976
study, and on a survey of three groups of decision makers
(landowners, developers, and consumers).
Burby, Raymond J. and Steven P. French with Beverly Cigler,
Edward J. Kaiser, David H. Moreau, and Bruce Stiftel. 1985.
Flood Plain Land Use Management: A National Assessment.
Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
The authors assessed the state-of-practice of floodplain
land use management in the United States. Their conclusions
are based on two national surveys of localities conducted in
1979 and 1983, and on three case studies. Primary findings
include: (1) simple regulations, like those required in the
National Flood Insurance Program, are not likely to be
effective; (2) the scope of floodplain land use management
programs is strongly associated with program effectiveness;
(3) land use measures can be effective at preventing flood
damage to future development, but not to existing
development; and (4) structural measures (especially dikes
and levees), can often lead to more development in the flood
plain that would otherwise be realized.
Burby, Raymond J. and Steven P. French. 1981. "Coping with
Floods: The Land Use Management Paradox." Journal of the
American Planning Association 47 (3): 289-300.
The authors identify a paradox in floodplain land use
management: the same local conditions which might stimulate
adoption of such programs also serve to create development
pressures in the floodplain, thus compromising the
effectiveness of land use strategies. Based on a survey of
1,203 local jurisdictions, they found that land use measures
are less effective when there is little vacant land
available for future development. Thus, if land use measures
are to be effective, they must be put in place well before
pressures for floodplain development begin to mount.
Bush, David M., Orrin H. Pilkey, Jr., and William J. Neal.
1996. Living by the Rules of the Sea. Durham, NC: Duke
University Press.
The misguided attempts over the years to protect coastal
properties through shoreline engineering have cost
communities in many areas their beaches. This book contains
a thoughtful critique of shoreline engineering projects and
suggests to planners the most productive ways to manage
coastal development.
California Seismic Safety Commission. 1991. Northridge
Earthquake: Turning Loss to Gain. Sacramento, CA: California
Seismic Safety Commission, SSC Report No. 95-01.
In this report the authors assess the effectiveness of land
use planning in mitigating losses during the Northridge
earthquake. Based on background reports, testimony at
hearings, issue statements and twenty-seven case studies of
buildings damaged by the earthquake, they found land use
planning to have been partially effective, and potentially
very effective.
Comerio, Mary C. 1992. "Impacts of the Los Angeles Retrofit
Ordinance on Residential Buildings." Earthquake Spectra 8
(February): 79-94.
The author evaluates the Los Angeles Earthquake Hazards
Reduction Ordinance of 1981. Upon examination of the
compliance rate, costs of implementation, and effects on
rents for residential buildings, she suggests that seismic
safety policy must be linked with affordable housing goals.
If this strategy is to succeed in other cities, innovative
financing strategies must be considered for retrofit
ordinances of unreinforced masonry buildings.
French, Stephen P., et al. 1996. The Northridge Earthquake:
Land Use Planning for Hazard Mitigation. Georgia Institute of
Technology.
This study sponsored by the National Science Foundation
analyzed the wide variety in quality of local land plans in
the area of Northridge, California, and found that plan
quality had a measurable effect in reducing damage from the
1994 earthquake.
Godschalk, David R., David J. Brower, and Timothy Beatley.
1989. Catastrophic Coastal Storms: Hazard Mitigation and
Development Management. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
The authors found that the single most effective local
strategy for hurricane and coastal storm hazard mitigation
is to incorporate mitigation objectives into a multi
objective land use management program. The authors also
discuss a variety of hazard mitigation policy options with a
special emphasis on land use management strategies. The
results were based on findings from a national survey of 598
coastal localities and three case studies.
Mader, George C. and Martha Blair Tyler 1993. "Land Use
Planning" in Improving Earthquake Mitigation: Report to
Congress As Required Under Public Law 101-614 Section 14(b),
National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Act. Washington, DC:
Federal Emergency Management Agency, Office of Earthquakes and
Natural Hazards, pp. 93-106.
An assessment of land use and planning strategies which can
be used to reduce earthquake losses. It includes a matrix
describing eleven general strategies, the extent of their
use, and their general effectiveness.
Orians, Carlyn E. and Patricia A. Bolton. 1992. Earthquake
Mitigation Programs in Washington, Utah, and California.
Seattle, WA: Battelle Human Affairs Research Centers.
This document provides a catalogue of selected seismic
hazard mitigation programs in communities in the states of
Washington, Utah, and California. The goals and objectives
of each strategy are described along with specific
mitigation measures. Where available, the authors also
include other information such as a brief evaluation of
effectiveness, estimated costs of implementation, and
procedural and organizational information.
Platt, Rutherford H., H. Crane Miller, Timothy Beatley,
Jennifer Melville, and Brenda G. Mathenia. 1992. Coastal
Erosion: Has Retreat Sounded? Boulder, CO: Institute of
Behavioral Science, University of Colorado.
The authors look at strategies to protect property from the
hazard of coastal erosion. They found that the strategies
most commonly employed are the elevation of new or rebuilt
structures and minimum setbacks from the shore. Both have
shown some effectiveness, yet neither strategy was found to
be used adequately. The authors offer recommendations for
improving federal, state and local mitigation programs.
Quarantelli, Enrico L. 1991. "Disaster Response: Generic or
Agent-Specific?" in Alcira Kreimer and Mohan Munasinghe, eds.
Managing Natural Disasters and the Environment. Washington,
DC: World Bank, pp.97-105.
The author found that although the technical and physical
aspects of disaster mitigation planning are agent-specific
(e.g., particular to the type or class of disaster), the
human, group, organizational, community and social aspects
tend to be generic. The author argues that a generic, or
all-hazards, approach to disaster planning would be more
effective than a hazard-by-hazard approach.
Reitherman, Robert. 1992. "The Effectiveness of Fault Zone
Regulations in California." Earthquake Spectra 8 (1): 57-77.
The author studied the effectiveness of the Alquist-Priolo
program in California and assesses its applicability to
other states and hazards. He found that land-use planning
and engineering techniques are effective in combination but
demand differing emphases depending upon the seismic hazard
(e.g., surface rupture vs. liquefaction versus ground
shaking).
Rossi, Peter H., James D. Wright, and Eleanor Weber-Burdin.
1982. Natural Hazards and Public Choice: The State and Local
Politics of Hazard Mitigation. New York: Academic Press, Inc.
The authors used survey techniques to examine the salience
of natural hazard problems to elites, the assessment of
risks from hazards among the larger population, and the
patterns of elite and group activity in activity in hazard
mitigation policy formulation. They found that natural
hazard mitigation is of low political salience to the
general population and to elites, and that very little
opinion is held about the various mitigation options.
William Spangle, and Associates, Inc. 1989. The
Post-Earthquake Hazard Mitigation Process: A Revision and
Recommendation Following the Whittier Narrows Earthquakes of
1987. Portola Valley, CA.
This report, based on interviews with local officials and a
review of reports on the Whittier Narrows and the Alaska
earthquakes, determined that the type of damage sustained
during an earthquake affects the strategies considered for
post-earthquake response. The Alaskan earthquake, which
resulted in ground failure, led local officials to consider
amending building codes and rezoning hazardous land.
Wyner, Alan J. and Dean E. Mann. 1986. Preparing for
California's Earthquakes: Local Government and Seismic Safety.
Berkeley, CA: Institute for Governmental Studies, University
of California.
The authors of this research report used case studies to
understand how selected California communities have planned
and implemented seismic hazard mitigation strategies. They
found that the incorporation of land use measures in the
seismic safety elements of local comprehensive plans in
California has become routine for many communities. Seismic
hazards are considered when evaluating a developmental
proposal, yet rarely do such concerns prevent approval of
the development.
